Sabbatai Sevi: the mystical messiah by Gershom Scholem

This volume is a magisterial effort that exhibits the master craftsman at his craft.  If one is interested in understanding what a professional historian does, Sabbatai Sevi: The mystical Messiah is a perfect example.  Scholem reviews all the different accounts reporting on the rise and fall of Sabbatai Sevi showing his command of languages from Hebrew, German, English and French.  He shows his power of analysis of each source, exposing bias, some sympathetic, some hostile and some curious about the subject!  He enjoys dismissing Henrich Graetz based on the sources. Scholem tells the story of hope and anticipation of the Jewish Messiah by sifting through the labyrinths of mystical codes and ecsoterica of Lurianic Kabbala.

Scholem's thesis seems to be that by the end of the Medieval period the religious world was steeped in the esoteric world of mysticism (more so than Maimonides' rationalism and almost negation of Mysticism) to the extent that a pretender and his marketeer could fool practically the entire nation.  According to Scholem, virtually the entire Jewish world was swept up by the marvelous events surrounding Sabbatai's appearance.  How else could vociferous rabbinic opposition be drowned out by the wave of excitement.  The desire for messianic relief was so great that one's faith was challenged when voicing opposition.

Early on Sabbatai was recognized exhibiting odd behavior before he rose to prominence.  His behavior reflected extreme mood swings of elation and ecstasy on the one hand and melancholia on the other. These episodes gave rise to antinomian practice, either ignoring or blatantly violating Jewish law.  The rabbinic ban was imposed on him (although curiously without much effect).  Nathan of Gaza, a fellow mystic then becomes his John the Baptist and Paul of Taursis all wrapped into one person.  Nathan begins prophesying and interpreting Sabbatai's odd behavior as illustrious signs of future events.  He calls for preparation of the 'Kingdom of Heaven' much like John the Baptist.  He proclaims Sabbatai as the Messiah much like Paul did about Jesus.

What is fascinating about this tragedy in Modern Jewish History is the determination to believe that he was the Messiah.  Even after his apostasy, large segments are not satisfied that he failed.  Nathan even explains that his apostasy was part of a divine plan.  Even with his death, people are reluctant to give up hope or faith.  Only after the death of Nathan, his prophet does the Jewish world begin to feel the depression of their mistake.

A few rabbis, like Sasportas, and Samuel Halevi were steadfast in their disbelief.  Some gloated to say "I told you so" and some were diplomatic in tending to their flock to help heal the open wounds of despair. One is told that the great aged rav at the time who's classic commentary on the Code of Jewish law, known as the TAZ was a believer.  He died before Sabbatai's conversion to Islam.

Today, perhaps because of the embarrassment of this tragedy most of us are unaware of how influential this movement was.  The Jewish world would like to forget Sabbatai Sevi.  Reading about Sabbatai Sevi, however, enables one to reflect on the rise of Hasidism and the fears of Messianism as reflected in the concept of Hasidic lore.  One may gain a better appreciation of the Vilna Gaon' s opposition, that perhaps instead of being preoccupied with the Kabbalah and the coming of the Messiah (like so many are today) one should fix times for old fashioned Torah Study stressing the rationality of Jewish practice and law.  That one should keep in mind that Misnagged (Those who oppose)  idea of the coming of the messiah:  that he will come late on a Friday afternoon, when one's household is frantically preparing for the arrival of the Sabbath oblivious to everything going on in the world so that observance of Shabbos can be ideally accomplished according to the Torah law and Halacha.

May we usher in his coming when we least expect it speedily in our days.

The French Enlightenment and Jews: origins of modern antisemitism by Arthur Hertzberg

With the age of Reason in full swing the question of Jewish Emancipation comes to the forefront of discussions in this major contribution to Modern Jewish History by Professor Arthur Hertzberg.  The men of the Enlightenment seem to fall into two categories: those that support Jewish Emancipation because Reason dictates it and those that argue against Jewish Emancipation because in their reasoning the Jews are exceptionally immoral and base and do not deserve to be counted among men, let alone to be emancipated.  Leading the charge against Jewish Emancipation is the age's seminal figure Voltaire.

In this volume one gets a clear picture of the differences between the Sephardic Jewish community essentially situated in the south that is granted emancipation first and the Ashkenazic Jewish community situated in the Alsace-Lorraine district in the north east.  The Sephardic community comes to France basically as converts to Catholicism and eventually quietly return to their original Jewish faith. Their assimilation includes giving up their autonomous Jewish court system and submitting to the authority of the State's justice system.  Their occupation is essentially international trade from which the State directly benefits.  They are not the hated moneylenders. Their dress, their language and occupation differ little from their gentile neighbors.  The lacking of the elements of obscurantism hasten the Sephardic Jewish community's emancipation.

The Ashkenazim, however, were an autonomous Yiddish speaking community with their own court and policing systems.  Their essential occupations were banking, money-lending, petty trade and commerce.  Most were poor, with the exceptional successful court Jewish purveyor.  The charges against them of obscurantism and backwardness were easy to obstruct emancipation.

Voltaire leads the attack against the Jews.  No matter how one interprets his attitude, Mr. Hertzberg shows that his contemporaries viewed him as the enemy of the Jews.  Most of the arguments in favor of Jewish Emancipation have to rebut his charges that the Jews are a morally incorrigible base element. Voltaire's charges are reminiscent of the ancient Greek and Roman charges before the advent of Christianity against the Jews being strange and separatist.

The Sephardic Jew, Isaac Pinto responds point by point to Voltaire and shows that Voltaire obviously has little experience with the Southern Sephardic Jews because they resemble nothing like those Jews in Alsace-Lorraine.  Voltaire seems not to notice.

Henri Gregorie, the Catholic priest forcefully argues that whatever faults the Jews might have, the blame lies with Christendom.  Years of persecution inure the Jews against the dominant culture. They should not be blamed for their aloof corruptness against the gentile because it is the gentile that is guilty of tormenting the Jews.  Once the Jews are to be treated as men, they will improve their moral standing. This argument is similar to the one Wilhem Von Dohm wrote at the behest of Moses Mendelssohn.  (Mendelssohn was concerned at the rhetoric because the assumption of Jewish moral corruption was so misleading that it cast aspersions against the entire Jewish people.)  Clearly, as a result of Voltaire's vitriol, the defenders of the Jews have to resort to false assumptions to show how Voltaire erred miserably.

Ironically, the Ashkenazim argue to retain their separatist ways of autonomous living.  They cannot, however, demand equality and retain their autonomy.  The forces of Reason eventually enable Jewish emancipation and the Jews join society as Frenchmen.  Nevertheless, the charge of obscurantism is permanently pressed against the fabric of Jewish culture and becomes the bedrock of any modern antisemitism.

The Devil in The White City by Erik Larson

If one is interested in a history of Chicago this is a great read.  Its strong narrative details the construction of the World Exhibition commemorating Columbus' discovery of America in the late 19th century.  As the narrative reveals the machinations of building the expo, one reads of the heinous deeds of a serial killer sociopath who easily dispatches his victims and converts them to cadavers and articulated skeletons profiting from them by conveying them to medical schools.

One is introduced to the leading citizens of the city: Montgomery Ward, Marshall Fields and Bertha and Potter Palmer.  Daniel Burnham is the lead architect and Frederick Olmstead is the lead landscaper, the one who did New York's Central Park.

George Ferris constructs the first successful Ferris Wheel and the bicycle becomes an everyday vehicle with equally sized wheels compared to the original design of an over sized front wheel.  Westinghouse gains the lighting contract over General Electric and converts the light bulbs to alternating current.

The reader is introduced to the famous Buffalo Bill Cody and his Wild West Show.  As a matter of fact, Cody, a consummate showman, denied a concession for fear of attracting the wrong type of crowd does very well. By procuring a nearby sight, Cody along with Anny Oakley and hundreds of Native Americans do not have to share profits and as a result, Cody becomes very wealthy without being a part of the World's Fair.  The organizers of the fair underestimate the attraction of the old wild west frontier, now an extinct way of life.

As one reads about the civic rivalry between New York and Chicago, one gets a glimpse of the most twisted monster of a man.  He easily gains the confidence of young women and lures them to his castle only to snuff out their lives and their children for no real reason except a thirst for killing and a desire for added profit.

Mr. Larson delivers a well constructed book of story telling and history in this nonfiction record of the 1895 Columbian World's Fair at Chicago IL.

Frederick Douglas by Philip S. Foner

This biography introduces one of the greatest American personalities in American history.  Mr. Douglas, a former slave becomes one of the most articulate spokesmen for the abolitionist movement. He becomes a foremost activist for the causes of abolition, negro suffrage , women's suffrage and other civil rights.  He speaks out against the colonization movement, the demand for the black populace to go back to Africa because white America can not seem to amalgamate black people into white society.

One striking feature of this bio is that the author records the observations of Karl Marx, founder of Socialism/Communism.  Marx was keenly observing what was going on during the Civil War because he was sure that the economic revolution would be triggered by the overwhelming work force of newly emancipated slaves!  Although what Marx predicted did not come to fruition, nevertheless the upheaval and struggle for black rights is well detailed here.

Mr Douglas has his fans among white society.  At first he aligns with William Lloyd Garrison in the cause for abolition.  Garrison turns on Douglas because Douglas questions Garrison's need for radicalism.  Mr. Douglas gains a following in England and is joined by the white Julia Griffiths who becomes indispensable in cranking out his periodicals and newsletters.  Speculation about their relationship creates a stir and is used to attack him.  Some claim that perhaps Griffiths edited and tutored Douglas because his articulation of ideas and his oratory are too fantastic to believe originating from a former slave.  Mr. Douglas feels compelled to write his own memoir to stop the speculation about his integrity.  Griffiths ends up leaving him so as to not upset the equilibrium of his family.  Curiously, after his wife dies, he marries an educated white women to the chagrin of the black community.  He, nevertheless, explains that he always believed in humanism and has always been colorblind.

The book details the nightmare of Reconstruction, the hatred of blacks and the murderous activities of the Ku Klux Klan.  And throughout the entire period, Frederick Douglas is constantly agitating not only for the betterment of his people but also for women's rights.  He shows courage to speak out.  Newspapers throughout the USA testify to his amazing oratory skill by following his career as a lecturer and adult educator.

The book teaches us how the Republican party was originally the party of choice for the black man and Frederick Douglas was steadfast in his support of it.  The Democratic party represents Southern interests and prejudice.  Not until after the Grant administration does the Republican party seem to abandon the black man's plight and align with big business ignoring past pledges.

This is an inspiring, excellent introduction to the origins of the politics of Black America and of one of its greatest spokesmen.

In the Garden of Beasts by Erik Larson

This strong narrative documents the career of William Dodd, a historian by vocation in the role of the American Ambassador to Nazi Germany in the beginning of Hitler's rise in the 1930's.  It also follows the promiscuous behavior of his daughter, Martha as she is first lured by the seductive nature of the nationalistic momentum of the German people following their leader and then romantically linked to a Soviet spy.

Dodd is given a mandate directly from President Roosevelt to represent the values of the USA in stark contrast to what was happening in Germany.  The lengthy reports being submitted by the Consul General about the violent attacks on Jews become politically sensitive because the USA does not want to interrupt domestic issues.  What makes this a very interesting read is that Dodd himself and his daughter have genteel antisemitic tendencies and initially can identify with Germany's irritation of their "Jewish problem".  What unfolds in this narrative is, however, Dodd's evolution starting out as a neutral diplomat and turning into a tough social critic of Germany, rejecting Nazi terror and brutality.

The title is a double entendre because it refers to the section of Berlin in which houses the Zoo and where the Ambassador lives and where much of his political activities occur.  Moreover, it reveals the brutal nature of the Nazis as beasts.  The reader is introduced to the cast of brutal characters: Hermann Goering, Josef Goebels, Heinrich Himmler and Hitler himself.  In Dodd"s only meeting with Hitler, he experiences Hitler's flash temper with his piercing stare.  As time goes on, Dodd becomes more and more revolted and repulsed by the violent nature of the regime.

One gets a glimpse of harsh American politics through the developing opposition to him as Ambassador because he refuses to temper the truth about Nazism.  His own antisemitism wanes as a result of his constant witnessing of innocent people being beaten.  At first seeing Jews being beaten, his (and his daughter's) immediate reaction supposes justification and reason.  When an American is beaten, however, by mistake, the Ambassador must lodge a complaint.  These events go unreported back home in the USA.  Dodd eventually is eased out of his position because of his refusal of doctoring and tempering the truth.

Dodd goes down in history as an honest reflection of American values of justice and seeking the truth. His daughter, however, is more embarrassing than a reflection of American values.  She is seen as being seduced by Nazi men and then by a Soviet.   One of her first loves is the first commander of the Gestapo, Rudolph Diels.  Diels comes off human and actually is out maneuvered by Himmler who takes over as Gestapo chief. She enjoys the wild hedonism of the Nazis and falls in love with a Soviet diplomat who is a spy.   Nevertheless, she too, transforms into a critic of the Nazi regime.  The brutality is too much to stomach.

The book ends at the beginning of the end for European Jewry and thus is a heartbreaking read.

Hitler's Willing Executioners by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen

Mr. Goldhagen analyzes the perpetrators of the Holocaust in this compelling study.  He studies the least Nazi indoctrinated group: police battalions and finds some chilling facts about the group.  The alacrity with which the shooters killed and the brutality inflicted on the innocent victims and lack of moral concern or dissent from the killings put the Germans in a different category of antisemitism. Mr. Goldhagen claims only an "eliminationist" antisemitism could have produced an efficient killing apparatus to have killed so many people without serious dissent or without moral outrage.  Mr. Goldhagen challenges the previous studies that gloss over the lack of moral outrage and shows that the real problem was not even the lack of moral outrage but rather the alacrity and enthusiasm with which the task was carried out!  He shows that those few who opted out of being the shooters did so not out of moral principle but rather out of squeamishness; in principle they were convinced that Jews should be destroyed.

The traditional German defense that was brought out and introduced in the Eichmann trial of "only following orders" is completely destroyed in this study.  There is evidence that photos were proudly sent home picturing the actual shootings.  There is evidence that wives supported husbands in the field of killing operations.  The author shows that the program was so large requiring so many people to perpetrate the murders that there could not have been any serious coercion.  The evidence does not support any serious argument in Germany against killing the Jews.

Churchmen calling out against the evil like Karl Barth are unique and not the rule.  The opposite seems to be true that the Church allowed the spewing of hatred and only a few Churchmen called out against it.  Only a few voices remind that "Pauline love" precludes hatred of the Jews. Those voices fall on deaf ears.

Mr. Goldhagen studies the concept of the labor camp (not killing centers) and concludes that the exploitation of slave labor had little positive economic effects or advantages.  The labor camp, the author asserts served as an outlet for orgiastic terror and brutality.

The author argues that Germany went through long stages of indoctrination toward antisemitism but only with Hitler's racial and eliminationist tendencies do the German people become inured to persecution of the Jews and agree enthusiastically to carry out his plan and wishes.

I would like to offer that eliminationist tendencies in hating Jews do not start with Germany.  Biblical exegesis from Nachmanides shows that the ancient Pharaoh wanted to eliminate the Israelites and could not call for their destruction for fear of the immediate moral outcry.  Rather, Pharaoh gradually introduces an incremental persecution program when eventually everyone in the country sees the necessity of casting the male infants into the Nile without moral outrage.  Additionally, the Biblical character of Haman hates Mordecai the Jew and hence forth desires to eliminate the entire Jewish nation.

Additionally, the concept of willing executioners is also not necessarily originating with Germany but perhaps has its origin in ancient Egypt too.  Rabbi Joseph Dov Soloveitchik comments that the killing of the first born that culminates in the 10 plagues recited at the Passover Seder represents the concept of willing perpetrators.  The Rav explains that the first born in antiquity was the basic administrator of the family.  Striking down the first born meant that he had to punished for the complicity in the persecution of the Israelites.  Egypt was a country with willing executioners.

I do not seek to minimize the uniqueness or minimize the gravity of the Holocaust because the German efficiency and scope of murder is so great. I point out, nevertheless that the single concepts of eliminating the Jews and being complicit in persecuting them are old themes. The event of the Holocaust is uniquely German because as Mr. Goldhagen argues the brutality coupled with alacrity in killing creates a whole new strand of Jew hatred.

ISRAEL VS. IRAN The Shadow War by Yaakov Katz and Yoaz Hendel

In order to understand what is happening between Israel and its neighbors, this book is a good primer. Katz, a military corespondent for the Jerusalem Post and Hendel, a military historian at Bar Ilan Unversity effectively discuss that last twenty years of the political tension and war between Israel and its neighbors concluding that Israel is in a proxy war with Iran.

The immediate neighbors of Israel are essentially being armed by Iran.  In the north, in Lebanon, Israel must contend with Hezbollah,  a Shi'ite military organization that constantly threatens Israel through rhetoric with heaving its arsenal of rockets down on Israel's north periodically.  Its main supplier is Iran.

Hamas, a terrorist organization that took over the Gaza strip, is constantly struggling with Fatah for control of the West Bank threatens Israel from the Southwest.  It is supplied secretly by Iran even though culturally Hamas is Sunni and Iran is Shi'ite.

Syria's ruling party, although not an immediate threat to Israel at this time because it is in midst of a civil war, nevertheless receives its weapons and support from Iran.

As Iran continues to march toward building a nuclear arsenal, Israel has had to make adjustments. The authors contend that Israel has adapted its army to the new conditions of a proxy war with a possible showdown by reworking its armed forces into a more commando style fighting force and utilizing high technology as opposed to a conventional army that is protected by a superior air force.  In the past, Israel has prided its army as fundamentally based on the civilian reservist who during war is called up to fight.  Now, the army does not rely on the reserve but relies on the commando concept of preemptive and surgical strikes with electronic warfare.

The ultimate gambit must include Israel's successful preparation for any serious counter strike from her immediate neighbors or from Iran itself.  Military planners must include a program to absorb the massive retaliation bound to occur from a very vocal and animated opponent.

This book is a very sobering, chilling read of history, strategic possibilities and military scenarios.